Acoustical sound proofing material and methods for manufacturing same

ABSTRACT

An improved acoustical damping wall (ceiling or floor) or door material comprises a laminar structure having as an integral part thereof one or more layers of viscoelastic material which also functions as a glue and one or more constraining layers, such as metal, ceramics, composites, cellulose, wood, or petroleum-based products such as plastic, vinyl, plastic or rubber.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION(S)

This application is related to commonly assigned U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/658,814 filed Sep. 8, 2003, by Kevin J. Surace and Marc U. Porat, entitled “Accoustical Sound Proofing Material and Methods for Manufacturing Same” which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

This invention relates to acoustical damping materials and, in particular, to soundproofing materials of a novel laminar construction which significantly improves the soundproofing ability of walls, ceilings, floors, and doors, thereby to prevent the transmission of sounds from one area to another.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Noise is emerging as both an economic and public policy issue. Soundproof rooms are required for a variety of purposes. For example, apartments, hotels and schools all require rooms with walls, ceilings and floors that minimize the transmission of sound thereby to avoid annoying people in adjacent rooms. Soundproofing is particularly important in buildings adjacent to public transportation, such as highways, airports and railroad lines, as well as in theaters, home theaters, music practice rooms, recording studios and others. One measure of the severity of the problem is the widespread emergence of city building ordinances that specify a minimum Sound Transmission Class (“STC”) rating. Another measure is the broad emergence of litigation between homeowners and builders over the issue of unacceptable noise. To the detriment of the U.S. economy, both problems have resulted in major builders refusing to build homes, condos and apartments in certain municipalities; and in widespread cancellation of liability insurance for builders.

In the past, walls typically were made up of studs with drywall on both exterior surfaces of the studs and baffles or plates commonly placed between the studs in an attempt to reduce the transmission of sound from one room to the next. Unfortunately, even the best of such walls using standard drywall are capable of only reducing sound transmission by approximately 30 db, and much of that is focused on mid-range and high frequencies rather than lower frequencies which cause most of the complaints and litigation.

Various techniques and products have emerged to abate this problem, such as: replacement of wooden studs by steel studs; resilient channels to offset and isolate drywall panels from studs; mass-loaded vinyl barriers; cellulose sound boards; cellulose and fiberglass batt insulation; and techniques such as staggered-beam and double-beam construction. All help reduce the transmission of noise, but, again, not to such an extent that certain sounds (e.g., lower frequencies, high decibel) in a given room are prevented from being transmitted to an adjacent room, including rooms above or below. A brief review of commercially available products shows that there has been little innovation in these techniques and technologies for many years.

Accordingly, what is needed is a new material and a new method of construction to reduce the transmission of sound from a given room to an adjacent room.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In accordance with this invention a new laminar structure and associated manufacturing process is provided which significantly improves the ability of a wall, ceiling, floor or door to reduce the transmission of sound from one room to an adjacent room, or from the exterior to the interior of a room, or from the interior to the exterior of a room.

The new laminar structure comprises a lamination of several different materials. In accordance with one embodiment, a laminar substitute for plywood comprises a sandwich of two outer layers of selected thickness of a cellulose material or wood which are glued each to an interior constraining layer, such as a metal, cellulose (e.g., wood) or a petroleum-based product such as vinyl, composite plastic or rubber, using a sound absorbent adhesive. In one embodiment, the constraining layer comprises a selected thickness galvanized steel and the glue layer is a specially formulated QuietGlue of a specific thickness which is a viscoelastic material. Formed on the interior surfaces of the two cellulose layers, the glue layers are each about 1/16 inch thick and the galvanized steel between 0.005 and 0.5 inch thick.

In one embodiment, the galvanized steel metal layer is preferably not oiled and of regular spackle. The resulting product, even though it contains the galvanized steel center sheet, can be cut with a standard hand saw using wood blades.

The laminated sheets of this invention use unique glues capable of substantially absorbing sound and vibration together with one or more constraining layers which reduce the transmissibility of the sound from one layer to the adjacent layers of material. The constraining layers can be metal, cellulose, wood, plastic composites, vinyl or other porous or semi-porous materials. The resulting attenuation of sound is significantly improved compared to the attenuation of sound obtained using standard plywood. Throughout this application, wood or cellulose material can be several different types of cellulose sheet material, such as but not limited to plywood, OSB, compressed fiber board or MDF.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

This invention will be more fully understood in light of the following drawings taken together with the following detailed description.

FIG. 1 shows a laminar structure fabricated for reducing the transmission of sound through the material.

FIG. 2 shows a second embodiment of a laminated structure containing nine (9) layers of material capable of significantly reducing the transmission of sound through the material.

FIG. 3 shows an alternative embodiment of this invention capable of reducing the transmission of sound through the material.

FIGS. 4-6 show sound attenuation test results on several of the embodiments of FIGS. 1-4.

FIG. 7 shows a laminar structure in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 8 shows a laminar structure in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The following detailed description is meant to be exemplary only and not limiting. Other embodiments of this invention—such as the number, type, thickness and placement order of both external and internal layer materials—will be obvious to those skilled in the art in view of this description.

The process for creating such laminar panels takes into account many factors: the exact chemical composition of the glue; the various symmetric and non-symmetric thicknesses of glue and layered material; the pressing process; the drying and dehumidification process.

FIG. 1 shows the laminar structure of one embodiment of this invention. In FIG. 1, the layers in the structure will be described from top to bottom with the structure oriented horizontally as shown. It should be understood, however, that the laminar structure of this invention will be oriented vertically when placed on vertical walls and doors, as well as horizontally or even at an angle when placed on ceilings and floors. Therefore, the reference to top and bottom layers is to be understood to refer only to these layers as oriented in FIG. 1 and not in the context of the vertical use of this structure. In FIG. 1, the top layer 11 is made up of wood or cellulose material and in one embodiment is ¼ inch thick. Of course, many other combinations and thicknesses can be used for any of the layers as desired. The thicknesses are limited only by the acoustical attenuation (i.e., STC rating) desired for the resulting laminar structure and by the weight of the resulting structure which will limit the ability of workers to install the laminar layer on walls, ceilings, floors and doors for its intended use.

The wood or cellulose material in top layer 11 typically is fabricated using standard well-known techniques and thus the method for fabricating the wood or cellulose material will not be described. Next, on the bottom of the wood or cellulose material 11 is a layer of glue 12 called “Quiet glue” sometimes abbreviated QG. Glue 12, made of a unique viscoelastic polymer, has the property that the energy in the sound and vibration which strikes the glue, when constrained by surrounding layers, will be significantly absorbed by the glue thereby reducing the sound and vibration's amplitude across a broad frequency spectrum, and thus the energy of sound which will transmit through the resulting laminar structure. Typically, this glue is made of the materials as set forth in TABLE 1, although other glues having the characteristics set forth directly below Table 1 can also be used in this invention.

TABLE 1 QuietGlue ™ Chemical Makeup WEIGHT % Components Min Max acetaldehycle 0.00001% 0.00010% acrylate polymer 33.00000% 65.00000% acrylonitrile 0.00001% 0.00100% ammonia 0.00100% 0.01000% bis (1-hydroxy-2-pyridinethionato) Zinc 0.01000% 0.10000% butyl acrylate 0.00100% 0.10000% butyl acrylate, methyl methacrylate, 5.00000% 15.00000% styrene, methacrylic acid 2- hydroxyethyl acrylate polymer CI Pigment Yellow 14 0.01000% 0.02000% ethyl acrylate 0.00001% 0.00010% ethyl acrylate, methacrylic acid, 1.00000% 5.00000% polymer with ethyl-2-propenoate formaldehyde 0.00100% 0.01000% hydrophobic silica 0.00100% 0.01000% paraffin oil 0.10000% 1.00000% polymeric dispersant 0.00100% 0.01000% potassium tripolyphosphate 0.00000% 0.00200% silicon dioxide 0.00100% 0.10000% sodium carbonate 0.01000% 0.10000% stearic acid, aluminum salt 0.00100% 0.10000% surfactant 0.00100% 0.10000% vinyl acetate 0.10000% 1.00000% water 25.00000% 40.00000% zinc compound 0.00100% 0.10000%

The physical solid-state characteristics of QuietGlue include:

-   -   1) a broad glass transition temperature that starts below room         temperature;     -   2) mechanical response typical of a rubber (i.e., high         elongation at break, low elastic modulus);     -   3) strong peel strength at room temperature;     -   4) weak shear strength at room temperature;     -   5) swell in organic solvents (e.g., Tetrahydrofuran, Methanol);     -   6) does not dissolve in water (swells poorly);     -   7) peels off the substrate easily at temperature of dry ice.

Following glue layer 12 is a metal layer 13. Metal layer 13 is, in one embodiment, 30 gauge galvanized steel of 0.013 inch thickness. Of course, other gauge galvanized steel and even other metals can be used if desired. For example, aluminum can also be used if desired, as can specialty metals such as sheets of ultra-light weight titanium and laminated layers of metal including laminates of aluminum and titanium. The thickness of metal layer 13 may range from 1/100^(th) to twice the thickness of layer 11. Of importance is that galvanized steel, if used, be non-oiled and of regular spackle. Non-oil is required to insure that the QuietGlue layer 12 will adhere to the top surface of metal layer 13 and the adjacent QuietGlue layer 14 on the bottom of metal layer 13 will also adhere to the surfaced metal 13. Regular spackle insures that the metal has uniform properties over its whole area.

Next, glue layer 14 is placed in a carefully controlled manner with respect to coverage and thickness on the bottom of metal layer 13. Glue layer 14 is again a viscoelastic material which absorbs sound and vibration and is typically the same material as glue layer 12. Finally, gypsum board layer 15 is placed on the bottom of the structure and carefully pressed in a controlled manner with respect to uniform pressure (pound per square inch), temperature and time.

Finally, the assembly is subjected to dehumidification and drying to allow the panels to dry, typically for forty-eight (48) hours.

Typical fire codes require a wall or floor structure capable of withstanding flames for up to one hour. The metal core, together with the external wood or cellulose board layers are intended to give to the resulting laminar structure a minimum of one hour resistance to fire, and possibly as high as four (4) hours in certain configurations, and thereby allows the resulting structure to meet typical fire codes.

Metal layer 13, typically 30-gauge steel (but may be other metals, ranging for example from 10 gauge to 40 gauge, depending on weight, thickness, and STC desired), is about the thickness of a business card. Of importance, before assembling, this metal should not be creased because creasing will ruin the ability of this metal to assist in reducing the transmission of sound. Only completely flat, undamaged pieces of metal can be used in the laminar structure.

An advantage of this structure is that the presence of metal layer 13 in the middle of the laminar panel results in a structure which will be capable of substantially attenuating radio frequency (RF) energy and electromagnetic radiation. In other words, the panels of this invention incorporating the sheet metal in the middle of the panels are capable of being used in a room so as to cause the room to be impervious to RF signals and suppress electromagnetic interference or radiation. As a result, a room paneled on the walls, ceiling and floor and using a door likewise containing the panels of this invention can be a secure room incapable of being penetrated by RF signals and electromagnetic interference. In particular, tests show that the steel of the sheet in the middle of the laminate panel of this invention reduces RF radiation by up to 60 decibels (60 db) thereby effectively allowing a room to be constructed which is totally shielded from RF radiation. The advantage of this embodiment of the invention is that the contractor installing the laminate panels containing the steel sheet will be installing the panels without knowing that the resulting structure will be impervious to RF signals and electromagnetic interference. Thus secure rooms can be fabricated using the panels of this invention without contractors knowing that in fact they are constructing such secure rooms. The panels of this invention when attached to steel studs using metal screws automatically electrically tie to all the other panels in the room and in the ceiling, floor, and door, and thereby result in a totally grounded shield surrounding the enclosed space or room. No additional electrical conductors must be attached to the walls with the result that the structure is much more economical to fabricate than in the prior art.

In an alternative embodiment, steel 13 is replaced by mass-loaded vinyl or a similar product. However, the steel has much less forgiveness than vinyl and thus can outperform vinyl as a constraining layer. However, for other ease-of-cutting reasons, vinyl can be used in the laminar structure in place of steel, if desired. Cellulose, wood, gypsum, plastic, ceramics, or composites of other constraining materials may also be used in place of vinyl or metal. The alternative material can be any type and of any appropriate thickness.

The resulting structure is capable of being cut using standard wood saws with wood blades.

FIG. 2 shows a second embodiment of this invention. Two external layers 21 and 29 of wood or cellulose material have coated on each of their interior faces a layer of QuietGlue 22 and 28, respectively, preferably made of a viscoelastic polymer, such as glue 12 in FIG. 1. Such a viscoelastic polymer has the ability to absorb sound and vibration energy through deformation of the viscoelastic material in response to the acoustic energy of the sound. On the interior faces of the QuietGlue are two sheet metal layers 23 and 27. Typically, these sheet metal layers 23 and 27 are each galvanized steel. In one embodiment, the galvanized steel is 30 gauge, 0.013 inches thick, but other thicknesses of steel, as well as other metals, can also be used as desired. The interior faces of the steel layers 23 and 27 are coated with additional layers 24 and 26, respectively, of QuietGlue, again a viscoelastic material of the same type as glue layers 22 and 28. Then the core of the structure is made up of a pine laminar sheet 25 which is of a type commonly used in plywood. In one embodiment, the pine laminar sheet is 1/10^(th) of an inch thick, but may also be MDF or other wood types.

Again, the galvanized steel is non-oiled and regular spackle for the reasons discussed above in conjunction with the embodiment of FIG. 1. The layers of glue are all viscoelastic material capable of absorbing sound and vibration. The resulting product has a thickness of approximately ⅞^(th) of an inch and weighs approximately 148 pounds per 4×8 section. The stand-alone STC for the resulting material is approximately 35 which yields a double-sided standard construction STC of approximately 50. The steel layers should not be creased before assembly. Creasing of the steel may ruin the steel for its intended purpose. Using completely flat pieces undamaged is required to achieve optimal results. The resulting structure again is cutable with a standard power saw using wood blades. The interior layer 25 of wood is in one embodiment Sierra pine 1/10^(th) inch thick MDF acquired in Rocklin, Calif. (http://www.sierrapine.com).

In fabricating the structures of FIGS. 1 and 2, the glue is first rolled in a prescribed manner, typically to 1/16 inch thickness, although other thicknesses can be used if desired, onto the first layer of wood or cellulose material and then steel is laid on the glue. After the steel is laid, a second layer of glue is applied to the steel and then a second layer of wood or cellulous material. Depending on the drying and dehumidification techniques deployed, anywhere from 10 to 30 hours are required to dry totally the glue in the case that the glue is water-based. A solvent-based viscoelastic glue can be substituted. The resulting structure is dried in a prescribed manner under a pressure of approximately 2 to 5 pounds per square inch, depending on the exact requirements of each assembly, although other pressures can be used as desired. To make the embodiment of FIG. 2, each of the two wood-glue-metal layer structures has an additional layer of glue rolled onto the exposed surface of the metal to approximately 1/16^(th) inch thickness and then the thin pine wood layer is placed between the two layers of glue on the already fabricated gypsum-glue-metal sheets. The resulting structure is placed in a press and 1 to 5 pounds per square inch of pressure is applied to the structure and up to 48 hours is allowed for drying.

FIG. 3 shows another embodiment of the acoustical soundproofing material of this invention. In FIG. 3, two external layers of wood 35 and 39 have on their interior faces glue layers 36 and 38, respectively. Between the two glue layers 36 and 38 is a constraining material 37 made up of vinyl. This vinyl is mass loaded and, in one embodiment, is 1 pound per square foot or greater, and is available from a number of manufacturers, including Technifoam, Minneapolis, Minn. The total weight of this structure when the external layers 35 and 39 of gypsum board are each ⅝ inch thick, the layers of viscoelastic QuietGlue 36 and 38 are each approximately 1/16 of an inch thick and the mass loaded vinyl 37 is approximately ⅛ of an inch thick, is about 140 pounds per 4×8 foot section. The total finished thickness of the material is 1.3 to 1.5 inches depending on the thickness of the vinyl and the actual thicknesses of the viscoelastic QuietGlue layers 31 and 33.

The structure of FIG. 3 standing alone has an STC of 36. The structures of FIGS. 1 and 2 have STCs of 34 and 35, respectively.

It is noted that uneven application of QuietGlue or leaving an air gap at the ends of the sheets of soundproofing material described above may hurt the STC ratings by several points. Moreover, to improve the soundproofing qualities of walls, floors, ceilings or doors made with these materials, glue must be evenly applied all the way to the ends and corners of the sheets. All of the panels described above may be cut with a regular saw blade using a typical saw.

The sound transmission class numbers given above basically are numbers which are used in the architectural field to rate partitions, doors and windows for their effectiveness in blocking sound. The number assigned to a particular partition design as a result of STC testing represents a best fit type of approach to a set of curves that define the sound transmission class. The test is conducted in such a way to make it independent of the test environment and gives a number for the partition only. The STC measurement method is defined by ASTM E90 laboratory test for sound measurements obtained in ⅓ octave bands, and ASTM E413 for calculating “STC” (Sound Transmission Class) numbers from the sound transmission loss in each partition, and these standards are available on the internet at http://www.astm.org.

Data showing the transmission loss in decibels as a function of frequency for the soundproofing material of this invention is set forth in FIGS. 4, 5 and 6. FIG. 4 shows a standard 2×4 construction with Quiet Wood 640 Solitude, as shown in FIG. 3, on both sides of studs with no insulation. The transmission loss in decibels varies from 25 db at 63 Hz to approximately 59 db at 4,000 Hz.

The center frequency of the ⅓ octave bands is set forth in the two rows of the table. The top line of each row represents the ⅓ octave band center frequency. The second row of numbers in each horizontal category represents the transmission loss (TL) in decibels (db) and the third set of numbers represents a 95% confidence level in db deficiencies. The EWR and OITC stand for External Wall Rating and Outdoor-Indoor Transmission Class, respectively, and represent other methods of measuring transmission loss. The final sound transmission class number is set forth under the notation STC in the lower right corner. For the use of two panels of the type shown in FIG. 3, on both sides of standard 2″×4″ wood stud construction, the STC is 49.

It is known to those practicing in this field that a similar configuration with standard ⅝ inch plywood on both sides of standard 2×4 construction yields an STC of 29. Accordingly, this invention yields a 20 STC point improvement over standard drywall in this particular construction.

The National Research Council of Canada (NRC) has documented the STC rating of many other configurations (e.g., using wood and steel studs in standard, staggered beam or double beam construction with various isolators such as resilient channels and with various acoustic insulation fillers such as sound board, cellulose and fiberglass batt). This invention has been subjected to the same types of tests.

The use of a single panel, alone, of the type shown in FIG. 3 yields an STC of 36, as shown in the bottom right corner of FIG. 6. Thus, the use of the single panel of the type shown in FIG. 3 to reduce sound transmission is less effective than the use of two panels on both sides of 2×4 studs as shown in FIG. 4.

One embodiment of the present invention is illustrated in FIG. 7. In this embodiment, laminar panel 45 includes a layer of 46, which may be for example ⅝″ inch thick plywood, and layer 47, which also may be ⅝″ inch thick plywood. Other thicknesses of plywood may also be utilized, and it is not necessary that both layers have the same thickness. The inner surfaces 48 and 49 of layers 46 and 47 respectively are coated with a viscoelastic polymer, such as the glue 12 utilized in the structure of FIG. 1. The characteristics of the viscoelastic polymer are described previously herein in connection with the prior figures. Viscoelastic glue layers 50 and 51 may be, for example, 1/16″ of an inch thick; however of course other thicknesses may be utilized. The embodiment of FIG. 7 uses a constraining layer 52 of metal, which typically may be 30-gauge steel; however other thicknesses may be used ranging from 10 gauge to 40 gauge depending on weight, thickness, and STC desired. Constraining layer 52 should not be creased since doing so will reduce the ability of the structure to reduce the transmission of sound. Only completely flat, undamaged pieces of metal should be utilized in this laminar structure. Suitable metals for constraining layer 52 include galvanized steel, stainless steel, aluminum, ultra-light weight titanium and laminated layers of metal including laminates of aluminum and titanium. A composite of two or more metals may also be used.

If galvanized steel is utilized for constraining layer 52, it should be non-oiled and regular spackle, and as noted above it should not be creased and should be perfectly flat. In constructing laminar panel 45, viscoelastic glue layers 50 and 51 are rolled onto surfaces 48 and 49, respectively, of layers 46 and 47. Next, constraining layer 52 is placed on the exposed surface of viscoelastic glue layer 51, and layer 46 with its associated layer 50 of viscoelastic glue is then placed on top of the constraining layer 52. The structure is then compressed using a pressure of approximately one to five lbs. per square inch. Application of heat may also be used and if so the temperature range would be about 90 degrees to 130 degrees fahrenheit.

Laminar panel 45 is particularly advantageous when used as a material for floors or in other applications where wood alone would normally be utilized.

FIG. 8 illustrates a further embodiment of the present invention. Laminar panel 55 includes layer 46, viscoelastic glue layer 50 and constraining layer 52 panel, all as described above in connection with laminar panel 45. However, in the embodiment of FIG. 8 neither a second layer of viscoelastic glue nor a second layer of another material is required. Laminar panel 55 also produces sound reducing characteristics and depending on the requirements, may be sufficient as a replacement for a wood layer alone.

Accordingly, the laminar structure of this invention provides a significant improvement in the sound transmission class number associated with the structures and thus reduces significantly the sound transmitted from one room to adjacent rooms.

An alternative embodiment of this invention is asymmetric, being made up of a relatively thick layer of material on one surface of which is placed viscoelastic glue. Over the viscoelastic glue is placed a thin layer of material relative to the first layer of material. This thin layer of material can be a constraining layer, such as metal or vinyl or rubber or any other appropriate thin material. This structure has sound reducing qualities, but is lighter and easier to handle than the structures described in FIGS. 1 through 3. Such a structure, for example, could be made up of layers 11, 12 and 13 of the structure shown in FIG. 1.

The dimensions given for each material in the laminar structures of this invention can be varied as desired to control cost, overall thickness, weight and STC results. The described embodiments and their dimensions are illustrative only and not limiting.

Other embodiments of this invention will be obvious in view of the above description. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A laminar, sound-absorbing structure for constructing walls, floors, ceilings or doors which comprises: a panel capable of attenuating sound, said panel comprising: a layer of metal having two surfaces, said layer of metal having a thickness between 0.0048 inches and 0.013 inches; a layer of viscoelastic glue on one surface of the layer of metal; and a layer of a first material selected from the group consisting of plywood, compressed fiber board, oriented strand board (OSB), and medium density fiber board (MDF) over the viscoelastic glue.
 2. The laminar, sound-absorbing structure of claim 1 wherein the metal layer comprises non-oiled galvanized steel.
 3. A laminar, sound-absorbing structure used for constructing walls, floors, ceilings or doors, which comprises: a panel capable of attenuating sound, said panel comprising: a layer of metal having two surfaces, said layer of metal comprising non-oiled and regular spackle galvanized steel; said layer of metal having a thickness between 0.0048 inches and 0.013 inches; a layer of viscoelastic glue on one surface of the layer of metal; and a layer of a first material selected from the group consisting of plywood, compressed fiber board, oriented strand board (OSB), and medium density fiber board (MDF) over the viscoelastic glue.
 4. A laminar structure used for constructing walls, floors, ceilings or doors comprising: a panel capable of attenuating sound, said panel comprising: two external layers of a material selected from the group consisting of plywood, compressed fiber board, oriented strand board (OSB), and medium density fiber board (MDF); at least one internal metal constraining layer having a thickness that is between 0.0048 inches and 0.013 inches; and two or more internal layers of a viscoelastic glue separated by the at least one internal metal constraining layer.
 5. Structure as in claim 4, wherein the two or more internal layers of glue comprise a viscoelastic material capable of absorbing sound and vibration.
 6. Structure as in claim 4, wherein the at least one internal metal constraining layer comprises non-oiled galvanized steel.
 7. A laminar structure used for constructing walls, floors, ceilings or doors comprising: a panel capable of attenuating sound, said panel comprising: two external layers of a material selected from the group consisting of plywood, compressed fiber board, oriented strand board (OSB), and medium density fiber board (MDF); at least one internal metal constraining layer selected from the group consisting of non-oiled and regular spackle galvanized steel, aluminum, titanium and a composite of two or more metals, said internal metal constraining layer having a thickness between 0.0048 inches and 0.013 inches; and two or more internal layers of a viscoelastic glue separated by the at least one internal metal constraining layer. 